Approach to acute agitation in the pediatric emergency department.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The complexity of pediatric mental and behavioral health (MBH) complaints presenting to emergency departments (EDs) is increasing at an alarming rate. Children may present with agitation or develop agitation during the ED visit. This causes significant distress and may lead to injury of the child, caregivers, or medical staff. This review will focus on providing safe, patient-centered care to children with acute agitation in the ED. RECENT FINDINGS: Approaching a child with acute agitation in the ED requires elucidation on the cause and potential triggers of agitation for optimal management. The first step in a patient-centered approach is to use the least restrictive means with behavioral and environmental strategies. Restraint use (pharmacologic or physical restraint) should be reserved where these modifications do not result in adequate de-escalation. The provider should proceed with medications first, using the child's medication history as a guide. The use of physical restraint is a last resort to assure the safety concerns of the child, family, or staff, with a goal of minimizing restraint time. SUMMARY: Children are increasingly presenting to EDs with acute agitation. By focusing primarily on behavioral de-escalation and medication strategies, clinicians can provide safe, patient-centered care around these events.

Using Structured Observations to Evaluate the Effects of a Personalized Music Intervention on Agitated Behaviors and Mood in Nursing Home Residents With Dementia: Results From an Embedded, Pragmatic Randomized Controlled Trial.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this research was to determine if a personalized music intervention reduced the frequency of agitated behaviors as measured by structured observations of nursing home (NH) residents with dementia. DESIGN: The design was a parallel, cluster-randomized, controlled trial. SETTING: The setting was 54 NH (27 intervention, 27 control) from four geographically-diverse, multifacility NH corporations. PARTICIPANTS: The participants were 976 NH residents (483 intervention, 493 control) with Alzheimer's disease or related dementias (66% with moderate to severe symptoms); average age 80.3 years (SD: 12.3) and 25.1% were Black. INTERVENTION: The intervention was individuals' preferred music delivered via a personalized music device. MEASUREMENT: The measurement tool was the Agitated Behavior Mapping Instrument, which captures the frequency of 13 agitated behaviors and five mood states during 3-minute observations. RESULTS: The results show that no verbally agitated behaviors were reported in a higher proportion of observations among residents in NHs randomized to receive the intervention compared to similar residents in NHs randomized to usual care (marginal interaction effect (MIE): 0.061, 95% CI: 0.028-0.061). Residents in NHs randomized to receive the intervention were also more likely to be observed experiencing pleasure compared to residents in usual care NHs (MIE: 0.038; 95% CI: 0.008-0.073)). There was no significant effect of the intervention on physically agitated behaviors, anger, fear, alertness, or sadness. CONCLUSIONS: The conclusions are that personalized music may be effective at reducing verbally-agitated behaviors. Using structured observations to measure behaviors may avoid biases of staff-reported measures.

A Qualitative Study of Racial, Ethnic, and Cultural Experiences of Minority Clinicians During Agitation Care in the Emergency Department.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Racial and ethnic bias in health care has been documented at structural, organizational, and clinical levels, impacting emergency care, including agitation management in the emergency department (ED). Little is known about the experiences of racial and ethnic minority ED clinicians caring for racial and ethnic minority groups, especially during their agitated state. The objective of this study was to explore the lived experiences of racial and ethnic minority ED clinicians who have treated patients with agitation in the ED. METHODS: We performed semistructured individual interviews of Black, Latino, and multiracial clinicians who worked at 1 of 3 EDs from an urban quaternary care medical center in the Northeast United States between August 2020 and June 2022. We performed thematic analysis through open coding of initial transcripts and identifying additional codes through sequential iterative rounds of group discussion. Once the codebook was finalized and applied to all transcripts, the team identified key themes and subthemes. RESULTS: Of the 27 participants interviewed, 14 (52%) identified as Black, 9 (33%) identified as Hispanic/Latino, and 4 (15%) identified as multiracial and/or other race and ethnicity. Three primary themes emerged from racial and ethnic minority clinician experiences of managing agitation: witness of perceived bias during clinical interactions with patients of color who bear racialized presumptions of agitation, moral injury and added workload to address perceived biased agitation management practices while facing discrimination in the workplace, and natural advocacy and allyship for agitated patients of color based on a shared identity and life experience. CONCLUSIONS: Our study found that through their shared minority status, racial and ethnic minority clinicians had a unique vantage point to observe perceived bias in the management of agitation in minority patients. Although they faced added challenges as racial and ethnic minority clinicians, their allyship offered potential mitigation strategies for addressing disparities in caring for an underserved and historically marginalized patient population.

Optimal strategies for assessing and managing pain, agitation, and delirium in the critically ill surgical patient: What you need to know.

ABSTRACT: Pain, agitation, and delirium (PAD) are primary drivers of outcome in the ICU, and expertise in managing these entities successfully is crucial to the intensivist's toolbox. In addition, there are unique aspects of surgical patients that impact assessment and management of PAD. In this review, we address the continuous spectrum of assessment, and management of critically ill surgical patients, with a focus on limiting PAD, particularly incorporating mobility as an anchor to ICU liberation. Finally, we touch on the impact of PAD in specific populations, including opioid use disorder, traumatic brain injury, pregnancy, obesity, alcohol withdrawal, and geriatric patients. The goal of the review is to provide rapid access to information regarding PAD and tools to assess and manage these important elements of critical care of surgical patients.

An Obstetric and Psychiatric Emergency: Managing Acute Agitation Among Pregnant Patients in the Emergency Department.

New onset of agitation during pregnancy is an obstetric and behavioral emergency that demands careful evaluation and prompt treatment. This article provides an overview of clinical evaluation and types of nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic interventions when managing acute agitation during pregnancy. Rapid clinical evaluation and behavioral management are keys to preventing detrimental maternal and fetal complications. Clinicians must seek out medical etiologies of agitation and always attempt verbal de-escalation before initiating chemical or physical restraints. Should medication be necessary, first-generation antipsychotics, second-generation antipsychotics, antihistamines, or benzodiazepines may be considered. Managing agitation in pregnancy is a challenging dilemma due to the fear of adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes as well as the legal risk involved. Nevertheless, clinicians should continue to assess the patient without delay, differentiate underlying causes of agitation, treat the mother and fetus aggressively, and consult obstetric and psychiatric services early.

Enhancing management of agitation after traumatic brain injury: Psychiatric perspectives and quantitative assessments.

BACKGROUND: Post-traumatic agitation is a common and problematic complication after traumatic brain injury. It may present with features consistent with psychiatric disorders, which may provide clues as to management. OBJECTIVE: This is a narrative review of pertinent literature and a description of a collaborative clinical approach utilizing psychiatric and brain injury rehabilitation strategies to optimize outcomes in the management of post-traumatic agitation. METHODS: Describe and provide evidence for a transdisciplinary clinical approach supported by existing literature and clinical experience. RESULTS: Given the heterogeneity of the problem and limitations in the current literature there is no standardized approach to manage post-traumatic agitation; nevertheless, a strategy is proposed that clinicians may utilize to guide treatment and assess efficacy of the chosen intervention(s). CONCLUSION: A clinical approach that uses quantitative assessment of targeted behavior to objectively evaluate pharmacological interventions that are generated by a collaborative approach may yield improved outcomes for managing post-traumatic agitation.

Standardizing and Improving Care for Pediatric Agitation Management in the Emergency Department.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Pediatric mental health emergency department (ED) visits are rising in the United States, with more visits involving medication for acute agitation. Timely, standardized implementation of behavioral strategies and medications may reduce the need for physical restraint. Our objective was to standardize agitation management in a pediatric ED and reduce time in physical restraints. METHODS: A multidisciplinary team conducted a quality improvement initiative from September 2020 to August 2021, followed by a 6-month maintenance period. A barrier assessment revealed that agitation triggers were inadequately recognized, few activities were offered during long ED visits, staff lacked confidence in verbal deescalation techniques, medication choices were inconsistent, and medications were slow to take effect. Sequential interventions included development of an agitation care pathway and order set, optimization of child life and psychiatry workflows, implementation of personalized deescalation plans, and adding droperidol to the formulary. Measures include standardization of medication choice for severe agitation and time in physical restraints. RESULTS: During the intervention and maintenance periods, there were 129 ED visits with medication given for severe agitation and 10 ED visits with physical restraint use. Among ED visits with medication given for severe agitation, standardized medication choice (olanzapine or droperidol) increased from 8% to 88%. Mean minutes in physical restraints decreased from 173 to 71. CONCLUSIONS: Implementing an agitation care pathway standardized and improved care for a vulnerable and high-priority population. Future studies are needed to translate interventions to community ED settings and to evaluate optimal management strategies for pediatric acute agitation.

Agitation Management in the Emergency Department with Physical Restraints: Where Do These Patients End Up?

INTRODUCTION: Agitation is frequently encountered in the emergency department (ED) and can range from psychomotor restlessness to overt aggression and violent behavior. Among all ED patients, 2.6% present with agitation or become agitated during their ED visit. We aimed to determine ED disposition for patients requiring agitation management with physical restraints. METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort of all adult patients who presented to one of 19 EDs in a large integrated healthcare system and received agitation management with physical restraints between January 1, 2018-December 31, 2020. Categorical variables are presented as frequency and percentages, and continuous variables are presented as medians and interquartile range. RESULTS: There were 3,539 patients who had agitation management with physical restraints included in this study. In total 2,076 (58.8%) were admitted to the hospital (95% CI [confidence interval] 0.572-0.605), and of those 81.4% were admitted to a primary medical floor and 18.6% were medically cleared and admitted to a psychiatric unit. Overall, 41.2% were able to be medically cleared and discharged from the ED. Mean age was 40.9 years, 2,140 were male (59.1%), 1,736 were White (50.3%), and 1,527 (43%) were Black. We found 26% had abnormal ethanol, (95% CI 0.245-0.274) and 54.6% had an abnormal toxicology screen (95% CI 0.529-0.562). A significant number were administered a benzodiazepine or antipsychotic in the ED (88.44%) (95% CI 0.874-0.895). CONCLUSION: The majority of patients who had agitation management with physical restraints were admitted to the hospital; of those patients, 81.4% were admitted to a primary medical floor and 18.6% were admitted to a psychiatric unit.

An individualized music listening program to reduce agitation in hospitalized patients with Alzheimer's disease and related dementias.

The sudden change in environment with hospitalization in patients with dementia can provoke feelings of agitation. Listening to music can be an effective intervention to decrease agitation because the part of the brain recognizing music is unaffected by dementia, and music can elicit feelings of happiness. This project aimed to reduce agitation in patients with Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD) by implementing an individualized music listening program. The sample included 21 patients diagnosed with ADRD admitted to a medical-surgical unit at a community hospital. The four-item Pittsburgh Agitation Scale (PAS) was completed by clinical staff to document the degree to which their patient exhibited four types of agitated behavior. A paired t-test yielded a statistically significant (p<0.001) decrease in total scores from pre-test (M=4.83, SD=2.10) to post-test (M=1.38, SD=1.40). The findings demonstrate that implementing an individualized music listening program reduces agitation in patients with ADRD.

Effects of aromatherapy on agitation in patients with dementia in the community: A quasi-experimental study.

The behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) are experienced by up to 90% of patients with dementia throughout dementia. This study aims to investigate the effect of aromatherapy on agitation in patients with dementia in the community. This prospective cohort study was conducted at a single day-care center for patients with dementia located in northern Taiwan with 2-week and 4-week follow-ups, comparing the severity of agitation between 3 measure points as the primary outcome. The aromatherapy was performed over 5 consecutive days for 4 weeks. Throughout the four-week observation were analyzed by GEE. Significant differences were found in the Chinese version of Cohen-Mansfield Agitation Inventory (CCMAI) total agitation score (ß=-3.622, p=0.037) and physically non-aggressive behavior subscale (ß=-4.005, p=0.004) between aromatherapy group and control group. The severity of dementia-related agitation, especially the severity of physically non-aggressive behavior in demented patients, could be significantly reduced by a four-week intervention of aromatherapy.

Management of Agitation in Behaviours That Challenge in Dementia Care: Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Non-Pharmacological Strategies.

Objective: NICE guidelines recommend non-pharmacological interventions as the first-line approach for the management of behaviours that challenge. Recent work, however, highlights dissatisfaction with the lack of detailed guidance in the national guidelines regarding non-drug interventions. This study examines the views of practitioners regarding non-pharmacological treatments. It further explores perspectives on non-pharmacological strategies used in the management of agitation occurring within episodes of behaviours that challenge. Methods: Forty-two experienced practitioners attended a workshop where behaviours that challenge were described as occurring in three phases of agitation, using a framework adapted from the Positive Behaviour Support framework (pre-agitation, triggering and escalating, high level). The participants were asked to populate a template derived from the adapted framework. The completed templates recorded the clinical strategies the participants found useful to (i) prevent the occurrence of agitation, (ii) de-escalate distress and (iii) deal with perceived high levels of agitation. Results: The Positive Behaviour Support conceptual framework was perceived by participants as helpful in organising their clinical work. A number of interventions were suggested as preventative strategies: music therapy, doll therapy, physical activity and generic person-centred communication skills to enhance wellbeing. In contrast, de-escalation strategies identified by the participants focused on reducing emotional distress. The approaches for dealing with continued high levels of agitation involved a number of "control and restraint" techniques as well as medication. Conclusion: The template allowed specialist multidisciplinary professionals to identify skills for the management of distress and agitated behaviour linked to the respective phase of arousal. The template has scope to guide practitioners to identify the detail needed for the management of behaviours that challenge. The findings have the potential to influence the contents of forthcoming guidelines on alternatives to psychotropics in dementia care.

Nonpharmacological interventions for agitation in the adult intensive care unit: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Person-centred nonpharmacological strategies should be used whenever possible to reduce agitation in the intensive care unit due to issues related to an overreliance on physical restraints and psychoactive drugs. However, the effect of nonpharmacological interventions to reduce agitation is unclear. OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were to systematically review studies that evaluate the effectiveness of nonpharmacological interventions designed to prevent and minimise or manage patient agitation in the adult intensive care unit. METHODS: This systematic review was conducted following the Joanna Briggs Institute's Systematic Review of Effectiveness method and a priori PROSPERO protocol. Quantitative studies were identified from seven databases, including MEDLINE, EmCare, CINAHL, Web of Science, PsycINFO, Scopus, and Cochrane Library. In addition, grey literature from several repositories and trial registers was searched. The primary outcome of interest was the effect on prevention, minimisation, and management of agitation. The quality of the evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE). RESULTS: Eleven studies were included (n = 882). Meta-analyses of two studies demonstrated significantly lower levels of agitation (measured with the Richmond Agitation Sedation Scale) in the group receiving a multicomponent nonpharmacological intervention than in those receiving usual care. Individual studies showed a significant effect of nature-based sounds, music, foot reflexology, healing touch, and aromatherapy. The type of the endotracheal suction system did not affect levels of agitation. Overall, the certainty of the findings was rated very low. Harms and adverse effects were not reported in any studies. CONCLUSIONS: Nonpharmacological interventions have the potential to reduce levels of agitation in the intensive care unit. However, inconsistencies in reporting, low quality of methodological designs, and small sample sizes impact the certainty of the results. Future trials must include larger sample sizes, use rigorous methods to improve knowledge in this field, and consider a range of other outcomes.

Agitation after traumatic brain injury: a review of current and future concepts in diagnosis and management.

OBJECTIVES: Agitation and aggression are common following traumatic brain injury. The challenges related to these disorders affect all stages of recovery, from the acute hospital to the community setting. The aim of this literature review is to provide an updated overview of the current state of post-traumatic agitation research. METHODS: We performed a PubMed literature review which included recent confirmatory and novel research as well as classic and historical studies to integrate past and future concepts. RESULTS: Areas explored include the personal and societal effects of post-traumatic agitation, methods for defining and diagnosing several neurobehavioral disorders, and pathophysiology and management of agitation and aggression. Target areas for future study are identified and discussed. DISCUSSION: While much progress has been made in understanding post-traumatic agitation, there remain several key areas that require further elucidation to support the care and treatment for people with traumatic brain injury.

Sensory-based interventions for the immediate de-escalation of agitation in people with dementia: A systematic review.

Objectives: Sensory-based interventions are commonly used to reduce the occurrence of agitation in people with dementia over extended periods. However, the evidence regarding their immediate de-escalation effects is unclear. The objectives of this systematic review are to (a) identify which sensory-based interventions have been used for de-escalating agitation and (b) examine the immediate effects of these interventions on de-escalating agitation in people with dementia.Methods: A systematic review was performed in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. Data sources were identified by searching Embase, Medline, PsycINFO, and CINAHL for publications up to 2 March 2022. The de-escalating agitation effect had to be measured during the intervention or within 15 min after commencing the treatment. Only randomized controlled trials or quasi-experimental studies published in English were included.Results: Nine studies met the inclusion criteria: two randomized controlled trials, one cross-over study, and six quasi-experimental studies. All were conducted in Western countries, involving a total of 246 participants. Music-related interventions were investigated in seven studies, and a positive effect on de-escalating agitation was found, with no side-effects. All of the studies had methodological limitations, including a single group design, blinding, an insufficient sample size, and imprecisely reported results.Conclusion: There is a profound dearth of rigorous studies examining the immediate agitation de-escalating effects of sensory-based interventions on people with dementia. However, the limited evidence on music-related interventions is encouraging. More rigorous research is recommended to confirm the effects.

[Electroconvulsive therapy used for somatic-triggered delirium].

Delirium is an acute and somatic-triggered condition that complicates hospitalisation on somatic wards. Antipsychotics are used as a treatment of delirium in the case of severe degree of a psychomotor agitation. In Denmark, ECT (electroconvulsive therapy) is rarely applied for treatment-refractory delirium, despite a relatively frequent occurrence and despite the lack of absolute contraindications. This case report presents a medical history in order to bring to attention the lack of precise guidelines regarding the use of ECT in acute conditions as well as the need for further research in this field.

Effectiveness of Montessori-based activities on agitation among Asian patients with dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVES: Montessori based activity are supposed to be an effective nonpharmacological intervention in the treatment of agitation in western countries. However, most studies conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of Montessori based activities on agitation in Asian patients were small sample size, as well as inconsistent outcomes, which may limit the reliability of the conclusions. The present pooled analysis, hence, was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the activity on agitation related with dementia in Asian patients with dementia. DESIGN: Prospective randomized clinical studies were included, of which available data was extracted. Outcomes of physical aggressive behaviors, physical nonaggressive behaviors, and verbal aggressive behaviors were pooled for the analysis by weighted mean differences. DATA SOURCES: Medline, Embase, Cochrane Library, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), WanFang, and China Science and Technology Journal Database (VIP). ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: Prospective, randomized, controlled clinical studies, conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the activity on agitation related with dementia in Asian patients with dementia. DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS: Available data including baseline characteristics and interested outcomes from the included literature were extracted independently by 2 investigators. Measuring scales including CMAI and NOSIE were adopted for the efficacy comparison between Montessori based activity and standard activity. Weighted mean difference was used for the pooled analysis. RESULTS: A total of 460 participants were included in the present meta-analysis. The pooled mean difference agitation for Montessori based activity was -3.86 (95% CI: -7.38 to -0.34, P = 0.03) comparing to standard activity. The pooled mean differences for physical aggressive behaviors, physical nonaggressive behaviors, and verbal aggressive behaviors in Montessori based activity group were -0.82 (95% CI: -1.10 to -0.55; P < 0.00001), -0.81 (95% CI: -1.68 to 0.55; P = 0.07), and 0.38 (95% CI: -0.92 to 1.68; P = 0.57). CONCLUSIONS: Montessori based activities may reduce the frequency of agitation, especially in physical aggressive behaviors comparing to standard activities in Asian patients with dementia. However, the effectiveness of Montessori based activities on reduction of subcategorized agitated behaviors including physical nonaggressive behaviors, and verbal aggressive behaviors may not be reliable as physical aggressive behaviors.